Review Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Movie Review Example The authors have made it clear in the chapter that families are not formed just because of economic reasons. Blau, Ferber, and Winkler states, â€Å"Human need for companionship, sexual attraction, affection, and the desire to have children also play a substantial part in family formation† (34). Economic factors although play a major role but the desire to live with the opposite gender is a more logical reason to form a family. Along with the focus on family formation, the authors have also discussed the reason behind family breakups. Some of the main reasons provided in this chapter included desire of a person to have sexual relationships with more than one partner, incompatibilities, and human need of independence. The authors have evaluated the neoclassical model of family in detail in order to highlight the advantages associated with this model. Along with the benefits of neoclassical model of family, the authors have also discussed the traditional model in which men are supposed to perform outdoor activities and women are supposed to remain at homes for taking care of the children. The decline of traditional model of family is also discussed in this chapter. The authors have described the disadvantages of specialization and revealed that couples can enjoy a number of economic benefits while living in the form of families. Specialization is just one issue; couples can gain many other economic benefits while living in families. The traditional division of labor is the biggest disadvantage of the traditional families. After discussing traditional model in some detail, the authors have shifted their focus towards neoclassical approaches of transactional costs along with Marxist feminist and radical feminist views and different bargaining models. The authors have also discussed how men and women usually allocate their time to work and family and how the allocation of time is changing with

Generation Gap Essay Example for Free

Generation Gap Essay Generation gap can be defined as an opposed division between younger people and older ones. It can be perceived in cultural as well as political fields of society nowadays. Nevertheless, the differences may begin to be bridged in diverse ways within those main fields. On one hand, the existence of clear contrasts between generations as language, fashion and art values may be easily appreciated in the Media, even the streets with graffiti and all kind of artistic works. What are well known among youngsters are the wide variety of codes they are able to create and manage, like the linguistic codes; the clothes they choose to design and wear and even the music they play and listen to, which are changing constantly in order to make adult people feel away from their own matters. In addition, it seems that revolution is an irreplaceable subject kept alive by young people exclusively. What they think is that their ideas are the best ones for he Worlds welfare, especially in the political and social fields. On the other hand, this distance between generations has existed since Ancient times when the elder people ruled all the societies and they were respected and even worshipped in several cases like the Greek and Romans civilizations. It seems that at present times, old people are sent to places of retirement and it may difficult and in the worst situation, impossible to participate in society decisions at all. Nevertheless, what Globalization cannot change nowadays are values. They have never been altered like love, solidarity, wisdom and common sense and they would be thought as bridges between distant generations. In conclusion, the generation gap may produce some misunderstandings in numerous senses whereas it will exist as part of evolution of human beings. However, it would seem to be a challenge to create new bridges to connect both sides through common cultural and political devices.

Not For Profit Organizations Prepare Financial Statement Accounting Essay

Not For Profit Organizations Prepare Financial Statement Accounting Essay Contributions are the primary revenue to a Not-for-profit organization. Because of the fundamental accounting of NFPO is different with profit-oriented companies, NFPO has its own accounting method for recognizing contributions. There are two methods of recording contributions are restricted fund method and deferral method. The objective of paper is to identify which method should be used. The restricted fund method recognizes restricted contributions as revenue when they are received. The deferral method recognizes restricted contributions until related expenses are incurred in future period. The paper will illustrate an example to compare the difference between the two methods, analyze the effects on financial statements and advantages and disadvantages of each method. The timing treatment restricted donation is primary difference among two methods. The advantages of deferral method is reduces noise from timing mismatch between when expenses are incurred and when revenues are recog nized. The matching helps avoid misstating cost for a period. It better evaluate the actual performance of organization. And deferral method can help the organization to develop an accounting plan extends beyond the current period which more rational use the contributions. But under the deferral method, it is not clearly presents information regarding how the organization manages the restricted contributions. And deferral of external restricted contributions to a liability may be confusing to the basic users. The restricted fund method will give a different result than deferral method. Restricted fund method is more clearly to present the information regarding restricted contributions how to use. Another advantage is the restricted funds method increasing comparability between current year and previous years in one organization. This is seen as both advantage and disadvantage in the same time. Because of an organization chooses which restricted funds to report, it lack comparability between with two organizations. Choosing an appropriate accounting method is important for nonprofit. It can attract more donations to support organization activities. Organizations should seek the help of professionals to assist it in implementing its accounts. 2.0 Introduction Contributions are the primary revenue to a Not-for-Profit Organization (NFPO). Because the NFPO has characteristics which difference with the for-Profit Organization, its accounting method of recording contributions has own standards in Part III of CICA Handbook-Accounting section. NFPO is required to use the restricted fund method or the deferral method of recording contributions. The purpose of this report is to identify which accounting method should be used to record contributions when Not-for-Profit organization prepares the financial statements. The report will illustrate an example to compare the different between the two methods, analyze the effects on financial statements and advantages and disadvantages of each method. This report is significance because adoption of different accounting method will affect result of financial statement presented. Financial statements are important communication information about NFPO to members, contributors and creditors. Financial statemen ts satisfy their and others interested needs, like the financial condition of organizations and how the management has discharged its stewardship responsibility to those that have provided resources to the organizations, especially important as resources are contributed for specific purposes and management is accountable for the appropriate utilization of such resources. The study is limited to Not-for-Profit Organization. The potentially benefit from this report is for all Not-for-Profit organizations. CICA states that many not-for-profits are subject to reporting requirements such as the production of audited statements or mandatory reporting to funders. (Improved Annual Reporting by Not-for-Profit Organizations.p4) Thus, effective financial report help build an organizations reputation. They can make a support, and can be a key means of reaching new partners and volunteers. 3.0 Background Although the not-for-profit organization applies a separate set of accounting standards in Part III of the CICA Handbook, the Accounting Standards Board (AcSB) emphasizes that the accounting standards for not-for-profit are not a stand-alone set of standard, there should be no differences in accounting between profit-oriented enterprises and non-for-profit organizations when the circumstances and transaction are the some. (CICA. Handbook) In 2008, the AcSB invited not-for-profit organizations to comment on a proposal that would see them use the same system of financial reporting that publicly traded corporations would soon be using. Some respondents opposed change the rules governing the way they report their financial information. When you try to put charitable organizations in the same realm as publicly traded organizations it becomes a challenge because the users of the financial statements have very different needs than a shareholder would have. said Michael Herrea, interim treas urer for the Anglican Church of Canada. If the church was required to use IFRS, Mr. Herrera said it would greatly increase the amount of financial reporting required; the additional information generated would be of no benefit to end users. According to comments received, the AcSB adopted a free choice of the accounting standards for not-for-profit organizations in Part III or IFRSs in Part I of the Handbook. Let us assume that non-for-profit organizations apply Part III of Handbook, which requires recording contributions should adopt restricted fund method or deferral method. 4.0 Definition Not-for-profit organizations have three types of contributions to report: unrestricted contributions, restricted contributions and endowment contributions. Following I will discuss that how three types of contributions are accounted for under the restricted fund method and the deferral method. 4.1 Deferral Method Under the deferred method, unrestricted contributions are automatically recorded as revenue when they are received. Restricted contributions are recorded as revenue until the related expense as been incurred in the future. Endowment contributions are recognized as direct increases in net assets, which are shown in the statement of changes in net assets. Especially, restricted contributions for the purchase of depreciable capital assets are deferred; the revenue is realized as the asset is being amortized. Non-depreciable capital assets, like land, are recognized as increase in net assets. 4.2 Restricted Fund Method The restricted fund method requires the entity must have a general fund and at least one restricted fund. The Unrestricted contributions and investment income are recorded as revenue in general fund. Restricted contributions are recognized as revenue if a restricted fund has been established for that purpose. If no related fund has been established, restricted contributions are treated the same way under the deferred method in general fund. 5.0 Comparison on Deferral Method and Restricted fund Method The primary difference among two methods is timing treatment restricted contributions. This affects the amount of liabilities and revenues reported. There is an example details a NFPO using deferral method and restricted fund method of recording contributions separately blow. The ABC Company is a not-for-profit training organization, funded through an agreement with the Province of AB. ABCs purpose is to provide accounting training program to all accountants in Alberta. ABC received $100,000 from the Province to establish the Princess Royal Scholarship endowment. This amount was invested in debt securities, which generated the $50,000 of investment income. The investment income is restricted for use to provide annual scholarships. $900,000 received from a wealthy and grateful benefactor on Jan 1, 2012 the beginning of its fiscal year. He requested that the money was to be used for purchasing and maintaining a property to house the administrative offices and operating facility. At the July 1, the following item were purchased in cash: Land $400,000; operating facility $300,000, it estimated life of 20 years. At the November 21, a donor contributes $10,000, without restriction for the operation of ABC. $ 25,000 of investment income paid out for Scholarship. In addition, ABC spent $16,000 for the year on maintenance costs for the operating facility. Donations Deferral Method Restricted Fund Method Presentation One fund one general fund; one capital fund; one endowment fund Scholarship As net asset Recognized as revenue in endowment fund Facility Included in deferred contribution; Recognized as revenue until facility expense incurred Recognized as revenue in capital fund Amortization Start to amortize deferred contribution Included in capital fund Interest earned on endowment Included in deferred contribution; Recognized as revenue until scholarships paid out Recognized as revenue in endowment fund Land As net asset As asset in capital fund 6.0 What are the effects on Financial Statements? Primarily the nonprofit organization must produce three important annual financial statements: the statement of financial position, the statement of operation, and the statement of cash flow. Kelly Bourgeois conclude that each component of a nonprofit organizations existence, like organizations programs or projects, is dependent on the organizations financial feasibility. Financial feasibly is accounted for through primarily those three financial statements. One of the principle differences in nonprofit financial statements compared to for-profit entities is the objective of a nonprofit is to realize its socially desirable goals and objectives for the community it serves, rather than to realize a net profit (2003. P16). According to analysis above, financial statements are showed blow. 6.1 Deferral Method ABC The Statement of Operation For the year ended December 31, 2012 Revenue Contributions 58,500 Expense Maintenance expense 16,000 Amortization 7,500 Scholarship 25,000 48,500 Excess revenues over expenses 10,000 ABC Statement of Changes in Net Assets For the year ended December 31, 2012 Unrestricted Investment in Restricted for Total Funds Capital Assets Endowment Net assets at the Beginning of the year - Add: Excess revenues Over expenses 10,000 10,000 Investment in Land 400,000 400,000 Endowment 100,000 100,000 Net assets at end of year 10,000 400,000 100,000 510,000 ABC Statement of Financial Position For the year ended December 31, 2012 Assets Cash and investment 319,000 Capital assets Land 400,000 Operating facility 300,000 Accumulated amortization (7,500) 692,500 1011,500 Liabilities Deferred contributions 501,500 Net assets Invested in capital assets 400,000 Restricted for endowment 100,000 Unrestricted net assets 10,000 510,000 1011,500 6.2 Restricted Fund Method If the ABC adopts the restricted fund method of recording contributions, the different format and results of financial statements will be presented than the deferral method. ABC Statement of Operation For the year ended of December 31, 2012 General Capital Endowment Total Fund Fund Fund Revenues Contributions 10,000 900,000 100,000 1010,000 Interest income 50,000 50,000 Expenses Maintenance 16,000 16,000 Amortization 7,500 7,500 Scholarship 25,000 25,000 Excess of revenues Over expenses 10,000 876,500 125,000 1011,500 ABC Statement of Position For the year ended of December 31, 2012 General Capital Endowment Total Fund Fund Fund Assets Cash and investment 10,000 184,000 125,000 319,000 Capital assets Land 400,000 400,000 Operating facility 300,000 300,000 Accumulated amortization (7,500) (7,500) 10,000 876,500 125,000 1,011,500 Liabilities Deferred contributions Fund balances Invested in capital assets 692,500 692,500 Externally restricted 184,000 184,000 Endowment 125,000 125,000 Unrestricted 10,000 10,000 10,000 876,500 125,000 1,011,500 (Fund balance=Asset-Liability) Under the deferral method, interest is recognized as an increase in the contribution revenue on the statement of operation as scholarship paid out. The operating facility is capitalized and amortization is recorded as expense. The amount of the restricted contribution recognized as revenue for the year is equal to the corresponding expenses incurred. The revenue over expense $10,000 which is unrestricted contribution received. The amount of the contribution not used at the end of the year is recorded as an increase in the liabilities deferred contributions on the statement of position. The deferred contributions decrease when the related revenues are recognized. Land and endowment are recorded as increase in net asset. Under the restricted fund method, the contributions are classified to general fund, capital fund and endowment fund. Each fund has a self-balancing separately. The Contributions and interest earned are immediately recognized as revenues in the corresponding fund. Any e xpenditure related to that fund is deducted from the balance. In this case, using the restricted fund method of recording contributions is better than using the deferral method. Because the restricted fund method is more clearly shows the ABC how to spend the restricted contributions. The restricted fund method makes ABC easy to report activity to its members, donators, and also to any government entity that is charged with the responsibility of overseeing its operation. 7.0 Advantages and Disadvantages Before identify which accounting method should be used of recording contributions for nonprofit, it is necessary to know the advantages and disadvantages of the restricted fund method and the deferral method. In terms of the ABC example this means that two methods would give different results of financial statements. 7.1 Deferral Method Under the deferral method, the recorded deferred contributions are transferred to the income statement as revenue when corresponding expenses been incurred. The contribution revenue is matched to the related expenses in the same accounting period. 7.1.1 Advantages For an accounting perspective, using the deferral method means the contribution revenues expected during a specific accounting period are directly matched to the anticipated expenses during this period. This helps the organization to develop an accounting plan extends beyond the current period which more rational use the contributions. Secondly, the deferral method reduces noise from timing mismatch between when expenses are incurred and when revenues are recognized. The matching helps avoid misstating cost for a period. The mention above, the objective of nonprofit financial statements is assessing whether the organization is achieving its objectives at the lowest possible cost. The deferral method can avoid misstating, for instance, avoid result in understated cost. Thus, it better evaluate the actual performance of organization. 7.1.2 Disadvantages Along with the benefits of the deferral method, there are several disadvantages need to be aware of. Using the deferral method the results of the unrestricted and restricted contributions are combined, and organization-wide totals are presented in the each of the financial statement. The restricted contributions remain unfulfilled are accumulated as deferred contribution. The organizations excess of revenue over expenses for the period represents the increase in resources that are not restricted to cover specific expenses of a future period (Cynthia L. Orr. 1996. P4). Thus, it is not clearly presents information regarding how the organization manages the restricted contributions. Another disadvantage is the restrictions are deferred and not reported until used. Deferral of external restricted contributions to a liability may be confusing to the basic users. 7.2 Restricted Fund Method As mentioned above that the fund accounting must be set up if a nonprofit adopts the restricted fund method. The organization would choose which restricted funds to report, and all similar contributions would be treated in the same manner. 7.2.1Advantages Using fund accounting system to record contributions can help to ensure that organizations use their resources in accordance with the stipulations donors; granting agencies and governing boards impose. Fund accounting segregates the account balances related to its purpose and keeps these funds from mingling with the other accounts of the organization. This ensures that the assets assigned to each fund remain available for the purpose of that fund. And the restricted fund method keeps the organization accountable to the donors who support the organization. Each donor wants to see the nonprofit serve the individuals who need its assistance. When the nonprofit organization issues its financial statements at the end of the year, the contributors can review the performance of each fund. The financial statements identify the money received for each fund and how the organization distributes those funds (Kathy Adams Mclntosh). Thus, the restricted fund method is more clearly to present the i nformation of restrictions. Secondly, choosing the restricted funds to report and treating similar contributions in same manner consistently that is increase comparability between current year and previous years in one organization. This is seen as both advantage and disadvantage in the same time. 7.2.2Disadvantages Because of an organization chooses which restricted funds to report, it lack comparability between with two organizations. Because of this choice, two organizations following the restricted fund method may each report similar kinds of restricted contributions differently. For example, one organization may present contributions restricted for purchasing equipment in a separate restricted capital fund. Another organization may not report a separate capital fund. It results in lacking comparability on similar contributions of two organizations. 8.0 Recommendation Which accounting method is best? This is a matter of what the entity wants to communicate in the financial statements. The best system is a system that gives the members of an organization control over its financial health and portrays this health through their records.(Kelly Bourgeo. June, 2003. p16). So the executive director and board of nonprofit should assess the financial health thought that, the financial statements should be easily comprehensible so that any person taking the time to read them will understand the financial picture; they should be concise and they should clearly show the relationship among the each transaction without confusing detail involving transfers (Kelly Bourgeo. P17). First, I recommend that using fund accounting. Because the fund accounting approach is more clearly presents information regarding how the restrictions are distribution and spent. And it can be effective, especially when accounting reports must be sent to more than one government agency. For example, if a charity receives an endowment for the childcare program, a contribution restricted to support homeless shelter and a grant for providing meals to stray pets, each of these programs is to fall into the jurisdiction of a different government agency. So by creating funds for each program, it is provide each monitoring agency with an accounting of what has been done with the donations received to support each program (Malcolm Tatum. 2012). The organizations determine an appropriate accounting method should determine who the uses of the financial statements will be and what their needs. For a nonprofit, it receives recurring restricted contributions, so donors will be one of the major users. In my opinion, the restricted fund method is better than deferral method. Because the restricted fund method provides donors with simply but robust information on how their contributions are be used. It let users clearly to understand the financial pictures. And it reflects a more accurate accrual basis of revenue recognition for the funds presented than the deferral method. The deferral method may be confusing to users because of recording restricted contributions as a liability. Each method has advantages and disadvantages separately for its use. So organizations should seek the help of professionals to assist it in implementing its accounts. 9.0 Conclusion The not-for-profit organization is required to choose either the restricted fund method or the deferral method of recording contributions when it prepares financial statements. According to analysis above, the timing restriction treatment is the primary cause for some of the more significant reporting and recognition differences. Using the restricted fund method, the restricted contributions are recognized as revenue when they are received. It more clearly presents the information of restrictions for the funds presented. The deferral method recognizes contributions until they are spent. The matching principle helps avoid misstating cost for a period. It better evaluate the actual performance of organization. But it may be confusing to basic users because of deferred restricted contributions as a liability. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The choice depends on the financial reporting objective and on the motivations of organizations manager. The accounting method, on ce selected, all received contributions must been applied that method consistently. The accounting policy seems be changed if the organization changes its method. There is not required to, I recommend that nonprofit uses fund-based structure. If no such fund has been established, restricted contributions are treated the same way as under the deferred contribution method. Choosing an appropriate revenue recognition policy is important. The organizations should seek the help of professionals to assist it in implementing its accounts.

The Usefulness of Structuralism as an Analytical Tool for Uncovering Ho

In the words of Michael O’Shaughnessy, ‘narratives, or stories, are a basic way of making sense of our experience’ (1999: 266). As a society and a culture, we use stories to comprehend and share our experiences, typically by constructing them with a beginning, middle and an end. In fact, the order that a narrative is structured will directly impact the way it is understood, particularly across cultures. This idea originated through Claude LÃ ©vi-Strauss’s concept of structuralism in anthropology which ‘is concerned with uncovering the common structural principles underlying specific and historically variable cultures and myth’ in pre-industrial societies (Strinati 2003: 85). In terms of media studies, structuralism’s inherent objective is to dig beneath the surface of a media text to identify how the structure of a narrative contributes to it’s meaning. Structuralism encompasses a large range of analytical tools, however, this es say will examine Joseph Campbell’s monomyth and Claude LÃ ©vi-Strauss’s theory of binary oppositions. Through analysis of Victor Fleming’s film, The Wizard of Oz (1939), it will be shown that although the monomyth and binary oppositions are useful tools with which to unveil how meaning is generated in this text, structuralism can undermine the audience’s ability to engage with their own interpretations of the film. In the simplest form, there is a basic structural pattern to narratives, as expressed through Tzvetan Todorov’s explanation of narrative movement between two equilibriums. A narrative begins in a stable position until something causes disequilibrium, however, by the end of the story, the equilibrium is re-established, though it is different than the beginning (O’Shaughnessy 1999: 268). Joseph Cam... ...an adequate mechanism for unveiling the techniques used to create messages in a text. Works Cited Campbell, Joseph (1968), The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, pp. viii-97. Eco, Umberto (1979), ‘Narrative structures in Fleming’, in his, The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, pp. 144-172. Hartley, John (2002), Communication, Cultural and Media Studies: The Key Concepts, London, Routledge, pp. 19-21. O’Shaughnessy, Michael (1999), Media and Society: An Introduction, Melbourne, Oxford University Press, pp. 266-290. Strinati, Dominic (2003), ‘Structuralism, semiology and popular culture’ (extract), in his An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture: 2nd Ed., London, Routledge, pp. 82-85. The Wizard of Oz (film), 1939, Director: Victor Fleming.

Report Education System in Japan Essay

Japan has already begun to experience a population decline, with the result that many universities are already having difficulty maintaining their student populations, although entry into top ranks of the universities remains hugely competitive. The emerging and foreseeable trend is that many universities will have to try to attract large numbers of foreigners or diversify or face closure. It is also now said that a university education in Japan is within easier reach of students today, but that the quality of that higher education is now in question despite the many educational reforms that have been set in motion. Each academic year begins in April and comprises of two semesters. Basic general degrees are four-year degrees, a feature adapted from the American system. Undergraduate students receive instruction via the lecture and seminar group method. The general degree may be followed by two-year Master’s degrees (generally a combination of lectures and guided research) and then a three year Doctorate (largely based on research) where these are offered. Graduate education in Japan is underdeveloped compared to European countries and the United States with only slightly more than 7 percent of Japanese undergraduates going on to graduate school as compared to 13 percent of American undergraduates. Postgraduate educational offerings are weak and the number of universities offering postgraduate programmes or a wide variety of programmes, is small, compared to that in other industrialized western countries. Japan has about three million students enrolled in 1,200 universities and junior colleges and consequently the second largest higher educational system in the developed world. Japan also has one of the largest systems of private higher education in the world. The 710 odd universities in Japan can be separated into 3 categories: highly competitive, mildly competitive and non-competitive (the schools that are first-tier being the infamously difficult to enter ones). Public universities are generally more prestigious than their private ones with only 25 percent of all university-bound students being admitted to public universities. More than 65 percent of high school graduates continue their studies; of these, over 70 percent are enrolled in private colleges and universities. Only about 10 percent of private institutions receive their financial resources from public funding, with most public funds on higher education being spent on the national and local public universities. Despite the impressive statistics, Japanese universities are considered to be the weakest link in the country’s educational system. While many western writers have, time and time again, attributed the economic success of Japan to the well-educated and highly literate population of Japan, recent writings and studies tend to be far more critical, lamenting the deplorable state and quality of higher education in Japan today. Despite the famed exam rigors and competitiveness, declining standards in education and the high school student’s lack of interest in studying have lately been under spotlight. Some attribute this disinterestedness to the fact that academic effort no longer assured automatic rewards with the disintegration in the formerly stable and guaranteed lifetime employment system. Japanese students are also widely known to traditionally consider their university days to be a social playground, a reward for the hard work and having made it there, and, as many critics have recently pointed, professors demand relatively little from their students. Despite the institutional change and sweeping national reforms underway in response to these criticisms, the key problems remain unresolved: the pyramidal-structure of the university system and entrance exam wars; the centrally-controlled curriculum and lack of individuality and creativity of students as well as the lack of competitiveness in educational suppliers.

Sop for Msc in Electrical Engineering

e idea of the first cellular network was brainstormed in 1947. It was intended to be used for military purposes as a way of supplying troops with more advanced forms of communications. From 1947 till about 1979 several different forms of broadcasting technology emerged. The United States began to develop the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) network, while European countries were developing their own forms of communication. 1. 2 History of GSM Technology Europeans quickly realized the disadvantages of each European country operating on their mobile network. It prevents cell phone use from country to country within Europe.With the emerging European Union and high travel volume between countries in Europe this was seen as a problem. Rectifying the situation the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) assembled a research group with intentions of researching the mobile phone system in Europe. This group was called Group Special Mobile (GSM). For the next ten years the GSM group outlined standards, researched technology and designed a way to implement a pan-European mobile phone network. In 1989 work done by the GSM group was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI).The name GSM was transposed to name the type of service invented. The acronym GSM had been changed from Group Special Mobile to Global Systems Mobile Telecommunications. By April of 1991 commercial service of the GSM network had begun. Just a year and half later in 1993 there were already 36 GSM networks in over 22 countries. Several other countries were on the rise to adopt this new mobile phone network and participate in what was becoming a worldwide standard. At the same time, GSM also became widely used in the Middle East, South Africa and Australia.While the European Union had developed a sophisticated digital cell phone system, the United States was still operating primarily on the old, analog AMPS network and TDMA. Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Instit ute of Technology, Phagwara 2 RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING In the end o the end of October 2001, Cingular was the first to announce their switch to the 3G GSM network. This involved switching more then 22 million customers from TDMA to GSM. In 2005 Cingular stopped new phone activation on the TDMA network and began only selling GSM service. 1. History of GSM in brief †¢1982:CEPT (Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications) establishes a GSM group in order to develop the standards for pan-European cellular mobile system †¢1988:Validation of the GSM System. †¢1991:Commercial launch of the GSM service. †¢1992:Enlargement of the countries that signed the GSM-MoU> Coverage of larger cities/airports. †¢1993:Coverage of main roads GSM services start outside Europe. †¢1995:Phase 2 of the GSM specifications Coverage of rural areas. 1. 4 GSM Frequency Band There are five major GSM frequencies that have become standard worldwide. They are following  ¦GS M-1800  ¦GSM850 GSM-1900  ¦GSM-400 1. 4. 1 GSM-900 and GSM-1800 GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are standards used mostly worldwide. It is the frequency European phones operate on as well as most of Asia and Australia. 1. 4. 2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900 GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are primarily United States frequencies. They are also the standard for Canada GSM service and countries in Latin and South America. Most of the Cingular network operates on GSM 850, while much of T-Mobile operates at GSM-1900. T-Mobile however, has roaming agreements with Cingular. Meaning in the case of no service at GSM-1900, the phone will switch to GSM-850 and operate on Cingular’s network. . 4. 3 GSM-400 GSM-400 is the least popular of the bunch and is rarely used. It is an older frequency that was used in Russia and Europe before GSM-900 and GSM-1800 became available. There are not many networks currently operating at this frequency. .5 GSM Services . The GSM services are grouped into three categories: 1. Telese rvices (TS) 2. Bearer services (BS) 3. Supplementary services (SS) 1. 5. 1 Teleservices Regular telephony, emergency calls, and voice messaging are within Teleservices. Telephony, the old bidirectional speech calls, is certainly the most popular of all services.An emergency call is a feature that allows the mobile subscriber to contact a nearby emergency service, such as police, by dialing a unique number. Voice messaging permits a message to be stored within the voice mailbox of the called party either because the called party is not reachable or because the calling party chooses to do so. 1. 5. 2 Bearer Services Data services, short message service (SMS), cell broadcast, and local features are within BS. Rates up to 9. 6 kbit/s are supported. With a suitable data terminal or computer connected directly to the mobile apparatus, data may be sent through circuit-switched or packet-switched networks.Short messages containing as many as 160 alphanumeric characters can be transmitted to or from a mobile phone. In this case, a message center is necessary. The broadcast mode (to all subscribers) in a given geographic area may also be used for short messages of up to 93 alphanumeric characters. Some local features of the mobile terminal may be used. These may include, for example, abbreviated dialing, edition of short messages, repetition of failed calls, and others. .5. 3 Supplementary Services Some of the Supplementary Services are as follows: 1.Advice of charge:- This SS details the cost of a call in progress. 2. Barring of all outgoing calls: – This SS blocks outgoing calls. 3. Barring of international calls:- This SS blocks incoming or outgoing international calls as a whole or only those associated with a specific basic service, as desired. 4. Barring of roaming calls: – This SS blocks all the incoming roaming calls or only those associated with a specific service. 5. Call forwarding:- This SS forwards all incoming calls, or only those associated with a specific basic service, to another directory number.The forwarding may be unconditional or may be performed when the mobile subscriber is busy, when there is no reply, when the mobile subscriber is not reachable, or when there is radio congestion. 6. Call hold: – This SS allows interruption of a communication on an existing call. Subsequent reestablishment of the call is permitted. 7. Call waiting: – This SS permits the notification of an incoming call when the mobile subscriber is busy. 8. Call transfer: – This SS permits the transference of an established incoming or outgoing call to a third party. 9.Completion of calls to busy subscribers: – This SS allows notification of when a busy called subscriber becomes free. At this time, if desired, the call is reinitiated. 10. Closed user group:- This SS allows a group of subscribers to communicate only among themselves. 11. Calling number identification presentation/restriction: – This SS permit s the presentation or restricts the presentation of the calling party’s identification number (or additional address information). 12. Connected number identification presentation: – This SS indicatChapter 2 GSM Identitieses the phone number that has been reached Chapter 2 GSM Identities 2.Classification of GSM IDENTITY NUMBER  ¦Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)  ¦International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)  ¦Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)  ¦International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)  ¦Location Area Identity (LAI) .2. 1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN) The MSISDN is a number which uniquely identifies a mobile telephone subscription in the public switched telephone network numbering plan. According to the CCITT recommendations, the mobile telephone number or catalogue number to be dialled is composed in the following way: MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination CodeSN = Subscriber Number E. g. 919822012345 = 91 + 98 + 22 + 012345 A National Destination Code is allocated to each GSM PLMN. In some countries, more than one NDC may be required for each GSM PLMN. The international MSISDN number may be of variable length. The maximum length shall be 15 digits, prefixes not included. 2. 2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) The IMSI is the information which uniquely identifies a subscriber in a GSM/PLMN. For a correct identification over the radio path and through the GSM PLMN network, a specific identity is allocated to each subscriber.This identity is called the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and is used for all signalling in the PLMN. It will be stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), as well as in the Home Location Register (HLR) and in the serving Visitor Location Register (VLR). The IMSI consists of three different parts: IMSI = MCC + MNC + MSIN MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits) MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits) MSIN = Mobile Subscriber Ident ification Number (max 10 digits) e. g. 404 + 22 +0000123456 According to the GSM recommendations, the IMSI will have a length of maximum 15 digits.All network–related subscriber information is connected to the IMSI 2. 3 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) HLR knows in what MSC/VLR Service Area the subscriber is located. In order to provide a temporary number to be used for routing, the HLR requests the current MSC/VLR to allocate and return a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the called subscriber At reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered.The interrogation call routing function (request for an MSRN) is part of the Mobile Application Part (MAP). All data exchanged between the GMSC – HLR – MSC/VLR for the purpose of interrogation is sent over the No. 7 signalling network. The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN), according to the GSM recommend ations, consists of three parts: MSRN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination Code SN = Subscriber Number e. g. : 91 + 98 + 22 + 005XXX where, 005XXX is sent by MSC. 00 is for Pune MSC, 20 is for Nagpur MSC, 10 is for Goa MSC.Note: In this case, SN is the address to the serving MSC The IMEI is used for equipment identification. An IMEI uniquely identifies a mobile station as a piece or assembly of equipment. (See IMEI, chapter 5. ) IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + sp TAC = Type Approval Code (6 digits), determined by a central GSM body FAC = Final Assembly Code (2 digits), identifies the manufacturer SNR = Serial Number (6 digits), an individual serial number of six digits uniquely identifying all equipment within each TAC and FAC sp = spare for future use (1 digit) e. g. 52518 + 00 + 581976 + 3 Where, 35 is for Nokia Handsets According to the GSM specification, IMEI has the length of 15 digits. 2. 5 Location Area Identity (LAI) LAI is used for location updating of mobi le subscribers. LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits), identifies the country. It follows the same numbering plan as MCC in IMSI. MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits), identifies the GSM/PLMN in that country and follows the same numbering plan as the MNC in IMSI. LAC = Location Area Code, identifies a location area within a GSM PLMN network.The maximum length of LAC is 16 bits, enabling 65 536 different location areas to be defined in one GSM PLMN. E. g. 404 +22 + 10000 where 10000 is the LAC for Pune. 2. 6 Cell Global Identity (CGI) CGI is used for cell identification within the GSM network. This is done by adding a Cell Identity (CI) to the location area identity. CGI = MCC + MNC + LAC + CI CI = Cell Identity, identifies a cell within a location area, maximum 16 bits e. g. 404 + 22 + 10000 + 726 Where, 404 + 22 + 10000 is the LAI for Pune and 726 are the CI of one of the cells of Pune. CI is different for all the three sectors of the cell. . 7 Base Station Ide ntity Code (BSIC) BSIC allows a mobile station to distinguish between different neighbouring base stations. BSIC = NCC + BCC NCC = Network Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the GSM PLMN. Note that it does not uniquely identify the operator. NCC is primarily used to distinguish between operators on each side of border. BCC = Base Station Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the Base Station to help distinguish between BTS using the same BCCH frequencies e. g. 71 Where 7 is the NCC for IDEA Operator. and 1 is the BCC. BCC can range from 0 to 7 Chapter 3 GSM Network ElementsGSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication & is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partn ership. GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware.The reason for this is to limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: ? The switching system (SS) ? The base station system (BSS) ?The operation and support system (OSS) 3. 1 GSM BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara 14 RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING 3. 2 BASIC GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 3. 2. 1 SWITCHING CENTRE Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara

womens lib essays

womens lib essays Throughout the years, women have been seen as someone to have children, someone to cook, someone to clean, and someone who does not deserve rights. Because two women, Elizabeth Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, fought for equal rights, women today have an equality that was once thought impossible. They began by educating women on the rights they should have, then forming the National Womans Suffrage Association, and finally, together, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony would change the way that the United States viewed women, they would give them the right to vote. Elizabeth Cady Stanton started the fight for womens rights at a convention in Seneca Falls, New York 1848. She spoke out on the so-called equal rights that women had, saying It is the duty of the women of this country to secure to themselves their sacred right to the elective franchise. With that great statement Elizabeth Cady Stanton showed that women do have an opinion and they want to voice it. As her speech progressed she spoke about the inalienable rights that the constitution granted to all Americans; and how these rights were not given equally to women. Her radical new ideas sparked a controversial battle that would last well into the next century. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was one of the first women to wear bloomers and not a dress around her town and home, causing her husband (a judge) much ridicule and embarrassment. In 1851 at another convention in Seneca Falls, she met Susan B. Anthony, a woman as passionate about the fight for women to vote as she was; oddly enough, they met while Stanton was wearing bloomers. The women immediately became friends, and started full force to gain equal rights for women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote most of the speeches delivered by Susan B. Anthony. Elizabeth Cady Stanton became the woman behind the scenes, and as the years progressed so did their fight. ...

Problems with an English-medium Education

Problems with an English-medium Education Free Online Research Papers To what extent is English-medium education the solution or the problem in settings where English is not the dominant language of the pupils’ homes or local communities? Unfortunately, this is not a question I am going to be able to give one clear, definitive answer to as I believe that English-medium education can be both a problem, and a solution in situations where English is not the dominant language. On the one hand we have cases such as the one that can be seen in the state of Karnataka in India, where English-medium education has been replaced by one of the local languages, Kannada, a sensible decision many would say, but not when you consider that most of the urban areas in the State are multilingual, with people whose mother-tongues are Kannada, Tamil, Marathi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Bengali, and many more (Resource and Reference Materials, p.81), so here, it could be argued, that one combining language, such as English, should be used that would be of benefit to all as a lingua franca. Then on the other hand you have Kathleen Heugh’s argument that without a full understanding of their mother-tongue children will strugg le to fully understand what they are being taught, and that English-medium education should not begin until the children have received at least 6-8 years of mother-tongue education to avoid any such problems of comprehension (Learning English, pp.181-88) In relation to Heugh’s argument I believe low levels of competence could exist where bilingual education is introduced too early, as children are often reluctant to question meanings of words for fear of revealing their ignorance in a subject, and in so doing facing ridicule from other students. Children can also struggle when having to concentrate on not only the message in say, a geography lesson, but also the medium when that lesson is taught in a second language such as English. Subjects such as geography, mathematics, and history should therefore logically be taught in the classes mother-tongue to allow the content to be more readily accessible, and to prevent the slowing down of the progress of the whole class, at least until the children are capable of comprehending the language they are being taught in. Heugh conducted a study of English and colonial language education in South Africa, a country that had adopted English through linguistic imperialism towards the end of the nineteenth century. Heugh found that up until 1975, African children had received eight years of mother-tongue education, followed by a switch in secondary school to joint Afrikaans and English-medium education. The school leaving pass rate had improved from 43.5 per cent in 1955 to 83.7 per cent in 1976, figures that justify my belief that a monolingual education system throughout the child’s formative years of schooling is the correct course to take; however, this was to change dramatically with the introduction of only four years of mother-tongue education after the student led rebellions in Soweto of 1976. Within a few years it had become noticeable that academic performances had dropped dramatically, and that teachers responsible for students in grades 5-8 were not sufficiently competent enough in Engl ish to deal with the switch. English-medium education was proving a problem here for both students and teachers alike with its earlier introduction into the curriculum. John Rogers, a senior lecturer at the English Language Institute in Victoria, New Zealand, backs up these findings in his article ‘The world for sick proper’ (1990), as he claims ‘.that if the aim really is access to educational opportunity, progress is more likely to be achieved by education in local languages. [and that] despite the enormous resources it diverts from other educational development possibilities, it actually achieves very little’ [Learning English, pp.212-13]. We only need look at another example of an early stage introduction of the English-medium in to the curriculum in Malawi to see its failings. Here, through lack of resources and funding, classes can often reach sizes of over a hundred children, and choral chanting then becomes the method of education where children will merely repeat en masse after their teacher, and, although giving students the ability to practice their pronunciation, it allows for no form of correction for the individuals whose errors will go undetected. The students in these situations are being positioned as passive recipients of the language and not given the chance to engage with each other, therefore severely limiting their ability to converse fluently through the medium of English. Again then, one must question how much of the message of the lesson they are taking in as they concentrate more on the medium of English than the actual subject matter. We do not have to look as far as India though to see where an English-medium only education system may soon be a major socio-political issue, and that is within the UK. Without considering the increasing linguistic diversity of the UK’s population, partly through immigration, we may soon find ourselves in a situation very similar to the one in South Africa, where many children are failing to grasp the basics due to a fundamental lack of understanding in the language they are being taught in. Figures show that some 10 per cent of school students have English as a second language, whilst the figures in London are even higher, standing at nearer 30 per cent (Monaghan, 2007, p176). So where, if anywhere, can an English-medium education system be of an advantage to students?.. Bangalore, capitol city of the State of Karnataka in India, as I’ve already mentioned in my opening statement, is a state divided by many languages, but with one common denominator amongst them all, English. Activists in Karnataka, throughout the late 1970’s and early 1980’s argued as to which should be the language of education and state, with the outcome being that it should be Kannada, a language spoken by around only a third of the State, but this unfortunately was not the wishes of many of the people, merely activists in positions of power. English has become an international language, a language of business and education, and the people of the regions appreciate that fact, realising for their children to have any chance of obtaining positions of power in business and industry they must be able to speak English. One such child, a young girl named Ranika, attends Bishop Cotton School, where from the age of 5 the medium throughout the school is English only, and it is her father who believes that â€Å"If you really want to become a world citizen. they have to learn the English language.. whether it’s in science, arts, or in business.† [An English Education, DVD2, 00:01:20]. Children in the state of Karnataka have learned to converse in several languages, and seem to have done so with relative ease as we see with the example of Thara, a young girl who attends Government Girls High School, who, by her own admission, can quite happily talk to neighbours and friends in Hindi, English, Guajarati or Tamil [An English Education, DVD2]. Thara sees it as a good thing to be able to speak to others through the medium of English when they are not able to understand her mother tongue of Kannada. Activists such as M. Chidananda Murthy argue however, that to learn through the medium of English would be to lose ones culture and heritage [ibid], but even here parents disagree strongly with this argument as it’s claimed that if they have their own influences on their children and the ways in which they are raised, then there should be no fear of westernisation, and that both the English language and their Indian heritage can coexist comfortably side by side. Again we only need to look within our own shores to see where this particular issue could be raised though, with many fearing a loss of local customs and heritage through the teaching of a standardised form of English which does not reflect local dialects and accents. Annamalai (1986) claimed that ‘ English helps maintain divisions and hierarchies within a country’ [Learning English, p.212], but if anything, within the UK I believe it has the opposite effect, breaking down the prejudices of economic backgr ounds, ethnicity, or nationality, as here we are all taught a standardised English, so can all converse without fear of a lack of understanding or ridicule, regardless of our place of birth or heritage. Britain has become a multi-cultural society, and for us to all co-exist comfortably together then the most obvious solution seems to be for us to all be able to converse fluently in the same language, and this is only possible if we are all taught through the medium of English. English-medium education can therefore not be seen with one blanket ideal, and every situation must be investigated and considered on its own merits before deciding whether the medium is indeed the solution or the problem for students whose dominant language is not English. Graddol argues that although the charge of cultural imperialism has still not gone away, English must be seen as a global language used for a range of purposes by non-English speaking countries (Graddol, 2006, p101), but at the same time we must not let it become an executioner bringing death to any languages it comes into contact with. This unfortunately, is why I have struggled to come to one conclusion as to whether English-medium education is the solution or the problem, as I can see the benefits of one all encompassing international language, but would hate to think that to have it would mean the death of so many colourful and interesting other languages, and the disadvantages that would come with not being a ble to speak it. Bibliography Mercer, N., Swann, J., Mayor, B. (eds) (2007), Learning English, Abingdon, Routledge The Open University (2009), Resource and Reference Materials U211(2007) DVD ROM 2, Exploring the English Language, OU, DVD00222 Research Papers on Problems with an English-medium EducationStandardized TestingComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoQuebec and CanadaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesHip-Hop is Art19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraBringing Democracy to AfricaPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyPETSTEL analysis of IndiaResearch Process Part One

An Evaluation of Academic Performance of Grade Essay Example for Free

An Evaluation of Academic Performance of Grade Essay Introduction â€Å"Bright minds make bright future! † Preparatory children nowadays are far  Ã‚  better than before they are more advanced in teaching and more capable of absorbing the methods of learning that used with them. Modern teaching accompanied with modules and analytical measures develop the  preschooler’s memory retention that serves as the foundation of their education. Kids today  are more willing and not afraid to  try to discover new ways and methods of learning. The value of preschool is a  hot topic these days. A small but growing number of  studies link enrolment in preschool or child care  centers (which typically include a  preschool curriculum) to higher cognitive and language scores on kindergarten-entry tests The early childhood stage is a  permanent learning stage. Whatever they learn now, they will take home. This preschool education is the provision of education for  children  before the commencement of statutory education, usually between the ages of three and five, dependent on the jurisdiction. The institutional arrangements for preschool education vary widely around the world, as do the names  applied to the institutions. Effective preschool education can help make all children ready to learn the day they start school and, more importantly, help close the  enormous gap facing children in  poverty. Preschool gives our kids the strong  foundation they need to be  successful in school and in life. Children who attend pre-kindergarten programs have bigger  vocabularies and increased math  skills, know more letters and more letter-sound associations, and are more familiar with words and book concepts, according to a number  of studies (Patson P. Opido 2010). The child is the ultimate concern in all educational processes. He is the beginning at the end of all educational efforts. The goal of education is to help every child grow up well-rounded; physically well-developed, mentally healthy, intelligently alert, emotionally secure and socially well adjusted. These can be truly achieved by giving attention to the child’s foundation. The first day of the children in school is a unique experience. It may be their first contact with big group of children. The difference among first grade pupils in their level of preparedness to grade one work may vary. The grade I teacher should be aware of the differences in the children’s readiness; some readiness is the springboard to do actions. Knowing pupil’s differences will guide the teacher on what to do to develop them to the fullest ( Lindberg and Swedo, 1995). A child born of a healthy, responsible and emotionally mature parents has a good foundation. His parents, especially the mother, guide him through the proper habits of eating, sleeping and cleanliness. An individual’s attitude toward himself and others, his behaviour either at work or at play, and his emotional roots in his early childhood experiences. What he learns at home constitutes the basis for future learning and adjustment. As the child develops social awareness, he needs to experience association with a larger group outside his home. Parents send their children to school simply because they want them to develop basic health habits and self sufficiency. Furthermore, this also includes the ability to use language patterns for simple and correct social attitudes in relation to the company of people around him, whether adults or other children and the appreciation of the aesthetic attributes of his immediate surroundings. Modern teaching accompanied with modules and analytical measures develop the preschooler’s memory retention serving as the foundation of their education. Kids today are more willing and not afraid to try to discover new ways and methods of learning. The value of preschool is a hot topic these days. A small but growing number of studies link enrolment in preschool or child care centers (which typically include a preschool curriculum) to higher cognitive and language scores on kindergarten-entry tests. The early childhood stage is a permanent learning stage. Whatever they learn now, they will take home. This preschool education is the provision of education for children before the commencement of statutory education, usually between the ages of three and five, dependent on the jurisdiction. Parents on the other hand, play a vital role in educating their children because they are their first teachers, which is the greatest contribution before a child ever begins his formal education in school. When a child enters the formal school, he carries out with him the acquired values from his parents. Just like the teacher’s task, if parents fail to perform their responsibilities, it may bring misbehaviour on their children which may directly or indirectly affect the child’s academic performance. In the Philippine public elementary schools today, inner tensions have been continuously affecting the learners going to grade one level, especially those who had never gone to any kind of schooling before. These learners entering grade one have many apprehensions. Most of them have no experiences in going to school. Parents are not capable of sending them to school especially those in remote and slum areas. Instead of giving their children a chance to study in Day Care Centers and Kindergarten in some public elementary schools, they ended up waiting for their to be accepted in Grade One. With these scenarios the pupils encounter difficulties in catching up with different skills like numeracy and literacy which are now the basic skills necessary in the first grade level of formal schooling. These children also suffer in relating themselves to their new environment, the school. In order to have a smooth transition from home to school and to prepare them socially and psychologically, the curriculum on the Early Childhood Experiences was recommended for adoption in all public elementary schools as included in Every Child A Reader Program ( ECARP). It aims to developing the reading readiness and developmental reading in Grade one as launched by the Department of Education. One of the major goals of the 2015 Education for All (EFA) is the expansion of the coverage and improvement of the quality of the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) programs in the country. The present government administration in its Ten-Point Agenda has declared a policy calling for the standardization of preschool and day care centers. The Department of Education (DepEd) in support of this thrust will administer School Readiness Assessment Test to All Grade One Entrants, effective SY 2005-2006. The School Readiness Assessment (SRA) is a tool to determine the readiness of Grade One entrants in tackling formal Grade One work. The School Readiness Assessment Tool will be administered by Grade One teachers assisted by the Grade Two and Three teachers one week before opening of classes. The assessment shall not be treated as an entrance test or examination. No child shall be refused entry to Grade 1 based on the results neither of this assessment nor without preschool experience. To continuously determine the school readiness of all Grade One Entrants, the School Readiness Assessment (SReA) was administered. One of the objectives of SReA is to assess pupils’ readiness across the different developmental domains – gross and fine motor, receptive/ expressive language, cognitive domain and socio- economic domain. The result obtained was the basis for grouping the Grade One entrants. It was also used to guide Grade One teachers in providing appropriate instruction and assistance to address specific needs of the pupils. The result of the School Readiness Test in May 2011 identified that there were at least forty two point ninety eight percent of the school population of Grade One entrants were not ready. Children with No Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) has low average in pupils’ readiness across the different developmental domains – gross and fine motor, receptive/ expressive language, cognitive domain and socio- economic domain. Background of the Study The researcher is motivated by the above mentioned situation and this led to the conceptualization of this study. As an educator, the researcher is faced with the fact that there is an imperative need to strengthen and streamline the internal management of educational arrangements in order to achieve efficiency and responsiveness to trends and challenges of the next millennium. It is therefore the aim of this study to empower parents and positively influence them on affirmative effects of pre-school education in the holistic development of their children particularly on the advancement of their academic performance. The value of preschool is a  hot topic these days. A small but growing number of  studies link enrolment in preschool or child care  centers (which typically include a  preschool curriculum) to higher cognitive and language scores on kindergarten-entry tests. The early childhood stage is a  permanent learning stage. Whatever they learn now, they will take home. This preschool education is the provision of education for  children  before the commencement of statutory education, usually between the ages of three and five, dependent on the jurisdiction. The institutional arrangements for preschool education vary widely around the world, as do the names  applied to the institutions ( Bustos Alicia and Espiritu 1985). The Early Childhood Experiences Curriculum, hence all Grade One teachers are expected to implement it. Teachers are also encouraged to make use of local songs, games, dances and indigenous materials to enrich the curriculum. It is hoped that the Early Childhood Experience for Grade One will greatly benefit the children and strengthen efforts to make the schools child-friendly. Theoretical Framework This study is anchored on Edward Thorndike’s, Jerome Bruner’s, and B. F. Skinner’s Theories of Learning. These theories enabled the researcher in the conceptualization of this work. The Law of Readiness as advocated by Thorndike is associated with mind set. It states that when an organism is prepared to respond to a stimulus, allowing doing so would be satisfying while preventing him would be annoying. This law works well in this study because the children is mentally ready to learn. The Law of Exercise states that the constant repetition of response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse of response weakens it. The exercises given to the children using a modifiable connection like instructional materials enables them to acquire the learning easier and faster because the responses will be utilized, the stronger the connection to be developed. Thus, when a modifiable between a stimulus and a response has been made, it is strengthened if its results in satisfaction as the Law of effect proves. Jerome Bruner’s (1915) theory of Instrumental conceptualization is also applied as it involves (3) three simultaneous processes as: Acquisition, Transformation and Evaluation. This theory of learning believes that the acquisition of whatever form of knowledge acquisition, who selects structures, retains and transforms information. Teaching without the use of proper strategic plans will result to failure. Through School Readiness Assessment Test (SReA), pupils will acquire knowledge through different techniques used by the researchers. Hence, learning to read is facilitated by Skinner’s Theory. Conceptual Framework This study focused on the evaluation of academic performance of Grade One pupils with and without Early Childhood Experience of Sto. Nino Elementary School. The independent variable consist of School Readiness Assessment Test (SReA) for children with and without Early Childhood Experience while the dependent variable is the academic performance of the respondents in terms of the following: Sensory Discrimination, Concept Formation, Numeracy, Reading Readiness and Construction and Visual Motor Integration. Research Paradigm Independent Variable Dependent Variable Figure 1 The above figure shows the relationship of independent variables to dependent variables of the study. Statement of the Problem This study intended to evaluate the academic performance of Grade One pupils with and without Early Childhood Experience (ECE) at Sto. Nino Elementary School, Division of San Pablo City. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions: 1. What are the mean pre-test scores of the two groups of pupils in terms of the following: a) Sensory, b) Concept Formation, c) Numeracy, d) Reading Readiness and e) Construction and Visual- Motor Integration? 2. What are the mean post-test scores of the two groups of pupils in terms of the following: a) Sensory Discrimination, b) Concept Formation, c) Numeracy, d) Reading Readiness and e) Construction and Visual Motor- Integration? 3. Is there a significant difference in the mean scores between the pupils with and without Early Childhood Experience (ECE) and their performance? Hypothesis The hypothesis stated below was tested in this study. There is no significant difference in the mean scores between the pupils with Early Childhood Experience (ECE) and those without Early Childhood Experience (ECE) and their performance in terms of the following: i. Sensory Discrimination, ii. Concept Formation, iii. Numeracy, iv. Reading Readiness and a. Construction and Visual- Motor Integration? Significance of the Study This study is of importance to the pupils, teachers, principals, parents and other researcher for the following reasons: Pupils are primary group which the study would benefit. They are the central point to be given much consideration because they are the recipients of this study. They will be assessed and it would be a big help for them to improve their academic performance. Teachers are the facilitators of learning. They may be able to undertake possible teaching alternatives that may be facilitate, enhance and improve their teaching skills to cater the needs of the pupils with and without Early Childhood Experience in order to improve their academic performance. They will specifically take cognizance of their status at present in terms of the problem arising in their own classroom. Likewise, they could assess definitely where the problem lie and thus, make remediation to solve them. Therefore the learners’ needs would be taken into considerations. The results of this investigation will also help other teacher in the field since the problems raised here may have also help them to improve the academic performance of their pupils. Principals are the ones who initiate support for every change that happens in the school. Good management and supervision of the school and the teachers, respectively, are the responsibility of the principals. Results which this study reveal may enable the school heads to plan out better and more effective ways to evaluate the academic performance of Grade One pupils with and without Early Childhood Experience. It is very important to take in consideration the needs of Grade One pupils because it is the foundation year for them. In that case the principal ought to have a plan to cater the individual needs of the learner to improve their academic performance to elevate the quality of education in the country. Parents are stakeholders of the school. The findings of this study are important to parents because they need to be informed about the performance of their school children in school. Through this, they will know the importance of Early Childhood Experience (ECE) for their children. For this reason, they will send them in preschool. So that their children will not be shocked with their new environment. The parents will work hand and hand with the teacher in facilitating strategies to evaluate the academic performance of the learners. They may also help influencing their children to have a good study habits. Their support to their children and school is important so that the goals will be attained. Other researchers who would be interested with this problem may gain further insights in developing their own research work. The data that will be revealed by this study may be used by other researcher to enhance their own studies. They may also use it as related study or augment data that they have to come up with a more comprehensive knowledge about the problem presented here into. Scope and Limitation of the Study The focus of the study to be conducted is An Evaluation of Academic Performance of Sto. Nino Elementary School, Dapdapan, District, Division of San Pablo City. It limits its coverage on the result of School Readiness Assessment (SReA) which includes the following areas – Sensory Discrimination, Concept Formation, Numeracy, Reading Readiness, and Construction and Visual Integration; the Pre test and Post test of School Readiness Assessment (SReA) and the instructional module being devised to answer the needs of Grade One pupils. The respondents of the study will be eighty (80) pupils of Sto. Nino Elementary School, forty (40) pupils with Early Childhood Experience (ECE) and forty (40) pupils without Early Childhood Experience (ECE). Definition of Terms For the interpretation of the study, the terms used are defined in order to avoid vagueness or ambiguousness meaning. Therefore, provide the reader a common point of reference. Public Elementary SchoolsThese are school managed, operated and maintained by the national government. It offers curricular programs for Grade One to Six children. Sensory Discrimination These refer to exercises in discriminating simplest form of mental operation that was clearly intellective. It includes exercises on identifying same and different shapes. Concept FormationThese refer to exercises that requires the learner to construct the properties of the object from the definition. It includes exercises on completing statements showing simple analogy. Numeracy The term refers the ability to learn the specific tasks in Mathematics like counting, arranging, sequencing sets of objects. The numeracy skills are designed to help with the more advanced levels of mathematics that pupils will encounter during the school lives and also into their adulthood. It includes exercises pointing out which has more or less sets. In this study, it pertains to the level of achievement of the Grade One pupils in different learning skills in Mathematics as perceived by their Grade One teachers. Construction and Visual-Motor Integration These skills refer to the smooth coordination of the eyes and hands working together. Sto. Nino Elementary School Public Elementary school situated in Brgy. Sto. Nino, San Pablo City where the present study is being conducted. Grade One Pupils. Refer to children entering the formal school in the primary grades as prescribed by the Department of Education, whose ages ranges from six (6) years old and above. Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This chapter presents literature and studies which are related to the problem. The materials found in local and foreign books, educational journals and magazines, documents, guidelines and reports by Department of Education provided references. Related Literature Philosophy and Goals of Elementary Education. Philosophy of pre-school education as stated in DECS Memo no. 107 s. 1989 considers the child, the school and the teacher with the support of the family in the maximizing the child’s potential. Pre-school education is based on the knowledge that each child is unique individual with his own biological make up, interest, capacities, and ways of viewing the world. He has a tremendous capacity for learning. He is active and understands the world differently from adult. His language has developed with acquisition of wide vocabulary making him capable of communicating his ideas and feelings. A pre-school child is always on the process of becoming, and therefore if properly developed can become a critical thinker and a socially sensitive, directed, creative, responsible and caring individual. Pre-school education must aim to develop children in all aspects physical, social, emotional and cognitive so that they will be better prepared to adjust and cope with life situations and the demands of formal schooling. By doing so, learning gaps and dropouts may be reduced or avoided to the maximum. Objectives of Pre-School education is founded on the following objectives; (Inc.DECS Memo No. 45 1995). They are as follows: To develop the child in all aspects ( physical, social, emotional and cognitive) so that they may be better prepared to adjust and cope with the life situations within the context of his experience. To maximize the child’s potential through a variety of carefully selected and meaningful experiences considering his interests and capabilities, and; To develop the child in all aspects so that he becomes a self- propelling, thinking and contributing individual able to make decisions which all prepare him more complex demands for future life. DepEd Order No. 10, s. 2004 is the legal basis in the implementation of the Enhanced Eight-Week Early Experiences for Grade One. Its main thrust is development of academic skills among learners. It is because most Grade One entrants have not gone through pre-school experiences. Hence, the Early Childhood Experience has been enriched and aligned with the BEC making it’s integral part of the Grade 1 Curriculum. In 1995, Early Childhood Experiences for Grade One was institutionalized at the same time as the official age for entry into the primary school was dropped to six years of age. All Grade One teachers were requested to implement the Eight-Week Curriculum and gradually move to the regular Grade One curriculum. Pursuant to DepEd Order No. 15, s. 2005, which calls for the administration of School Readiness Assessment for All Grade One Entrants, all incoming Grade 1 shall undergo a school readiness assessment using the revised tool. The School Readiness Assessment (SRA) will be administered by Grade 1 teachers to be assisted by Grade II, III and master teachers of their respective schools. This assessment shall be administered twice. The first assessment given on May. The second shall be administered after the children have undergone 8-week curriculum, focusing on the competencies not manifested by the child during the first assessment. The SRA will determine the level of progress of Grade 1 entrants across different developmental domains that are critical in tracking Grade 1 learning competencies. The result shall be the basis for grouping the Grade 1 entrants. It will be also used to guide Grade 1 teachers in providing appropriate instruction and assistance to address specific needs of the pupils through the utilization of the 8-week curriculum. The assessment shall not be treated as an entrance test or examination as children may be anxious about passing or failing. No child shall be refused entry to Grade 1 based on the results of this assessment. â€Å" Educating our children at an early stage will give more chance for young Filipinos in the future to compete for jobs and opportunities in the new world order in which better educated and highly skilled persons have become the most valued resources. † Giving access to free quality early childhood education will bridge the gap between the rich and the poor that will give our less privileged countrymen a strong foundation for the challenges in the next millennium. (Eduardo J. Angara, 1997) The Early Childhood Care and Development ( ECCD ) Law, enacted in 2000, recognizes the importance of early childhood and its special needs, affirms parents as primary caregivers and the child’s first teachers, and establishes parent effectiveness, seminars and nutrition counselling for pregnant and lactating mothers. The law requires the establishment of a National Coordinating Council for the Welfare of Children which: (a) establishes guidelines, standards, and culturally relevant practices for ECCD programs; (b) develops a national system for the recruitment, training, and accrediting of caregivers; (c) monitors the delivery of ECCD services and the impact of beneficiaries; (d) provides additional resources to poor and disadvantaged communities in order to increase the supply of ECCD programs; (e) encourages the development of private sector initiatives the Republic Act 6972 known as â€Å" Barangay (village) Level Total Protection of Childen Act† has a provision that requires all local government units to establish a day-care centre in every village ; the law institutionalized the features of day-care programme that provide for young children’s learning needs aside from their health and psychosocial needs. The universalization of early childhood education and standardization of preschool and day care centers was established though the Executive Order No. 658 of 2008 (Expanding the Pre-School Coverage to Include Children Enrolled in Day Care Centers). (PTFE 2008). According to Clark (2002), in her article First Grade Readiness, there are signs one can look for, to know if a child is a ready for first grade. In the physical realm, the first grade child’s limbs are now proportion with the body and head . There is a loss of baby far and greater definition in the face. In the emotional realm, the young child who once expressed strong emotions through sudden outburst now has a feelings that begin to deepen. A child will talk of â€Å"hurt feelings† and being sad. Socially, the first grade ready child begins to form friendships which go deeper than before. The child feels loyalty for friends and often expresses the desire to be with them. In the mental realm, there is the birth of free memory. This is different than the memory of a four year old. The younger child’s memory must be triggered by a sight, smell, or rhythmic verse when the memory and recall it will. Kagan (2000) stated that the concept of school readiness has been defined and redefined over the years resulting in differing viewpoints. Several theories of child development and learning have been used to explain the term. In fact, there appears to be two types of readiness: readiness to learn, which involves a level of development at which the child has the capacity to learn specific materials, and readiness for school and readiness for school which involve specific set of cognitive, linguistic, social and motor skills that enable a child to assimilate the school’s curriculum. According to Quinto (2001) the lowering of entrance to six years old for grade one pupils in the Philippines public elementary schools have created inner tensions, especially to those who had never gone to any kind of school before. So, in order to have a smooth transition from home to school and to prepare them socially, psychologically, the curriculum on the Early Childhood Experiences was recommended for adoption in all public elementary schools. Studies show that child’s mind is almost full developed before he reaches the age of five. This presents a need for an organized early childhood education. Pre-elementary or preschool education is one of the latest trends in childhood education which gives equal opportunities to all children at the lowest step of educational ladder. Preschool education holds a prominent place, being that level in the school system wherein children are trained to be better prepared for grade one. For the development of the child, the curriculum focuses on these areas of development: physical ( gross and fine motor coordination through play and manipulated activities like games, simple work); cognitive ( communication skills, sensory-perceptual concepts, numeracy skills); personal social (health habits and independence in dressing, eating, sleeping, toileting; relating with teachers, peers and other people through group play and interaction; follow rules and routine. Groark (2006) stresses that the school and district administrators, as well as policymakers are increasingly recognizing that early education and intervention services for young children have a direct and positive impact on later school performance and quality. Soliven (1999) stated that an authority on child development, underscores the significance of pre-primary education to the mental development of children citing the results of research which showed that pre-primary education is important to the child, she pointed out the intellectual capacity of the child is most susceptible to reaches a substantially higher rate of intellectual development of Early Childhood especially in a favourable environment. It is apparent that intelligence is best developed in the first six years of life, if the child is exposed to a favourable environment for development during this formative period. Vittetow (1994) former Education Expert of International Cooperation Administration (ICA) in his Educational Series Bulletin for the Bureau of Public Schools gave growth characteristics of Pre-school Filipino children, which are true to all children at this level of growth and development. Said development and growth includes: 1) Physical Characteristics, 2) Mental Characteristics, 3) Social Characteristics, 4) Emotional Characteristics, 5) Spiritual and Moral Characteristics and 6) Aesthetic Characteristics. According to Kats (2001) what the children learn, how they learn, and how much they learn depend on many factors. Among the most important factor’s are the child’s physical well-being, and his emotional and cognitive relationships with those who care for him. The school readiness goal reflects two concerns about the education of young children. The first is that the increasing numbers of young children in poverty, in single-parent households have limited proficiency in English are affected by the drug abuse of their parents have poor nutrition, and receive inadequate health care. The second area of concern involves such matters as the high rates of retention in kindergarten and primary grades, delayed school entry in some districts, segregated transition in classes in others and the increasing use of standardized tests to determine children’s readiness to enter school. Standardized tests used to deny children entrance to school or place them in special classes are inappropriate for children younger than six. These trends are due largely to the fact that an academic curriculum and direct instruction teaching practices that are appropriate for the upper grades have gradually been moved down to the kindergarten and first grade. These two areas of concern suggest that reaching the school readiness goal will require a twofold strategy: one part focused on supporting families in their efforts to help their children get ready for school, and the second on helping the schools to be responsive to the wide range of development levels, backgrounds, experiences, and needs of children to bring them in school. Watson (1985) pointed out that groups of children of higher economic status have higher level of intelligence than those favored economic status, the higher their average IQ’s on Standford – Binet or similar verbal test. The mismatch between the schools and children from low income working class families had led to concerted attempts to involve parents from these families in the schools. When the school can involve low-income parents, their children’s school attendance increases, the children are less disruptive in class and less aggressive on the playground, their classwork improves, and they are more likely to complete their homework. If they are raised in emotionally secured homes they tend to be emotionally secured children. If they are raised in homes which lack happiness and have little emotionally security they may in time tend to be unhappy and insecure. However, these differences between higher and lower socio-economic groups may be due to non-intellectual factors. Some of these factors serving to depress intelligence test scores among the lower socio-economic groups could be greater resistance to taking test, the effect of nutritional deficiencies, different attitudes towards education, suspicion, lack of support and the like. Although any or all of these factors seem reasonable, there are no definite research to establish the answer conclusively. It has been observed that most elementary teachers do not have the necessary educational background to teach visual arts. University of Hawaii’s Professor, Dr. Stephanie Feeny (1986); stresses the importance of the arts in the development of the thinking process in children. An Evaluation of Academic Performance of Grade. (2016, Oct 06).

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Business Financing and the Capital Structure - Essay Example The debt financing is welcome in many cases in which the loaned amount can be easily repaid back by the borrower. In addition to this debt also provides advantage to the companies that have opted for debt. Mostly the companies in the later stages go in for debt financing. The Equity financing method is the process in which the companies use the method of raising capital by selling company stocks to the investors. While in debt, financing the company does not have to share any ownership with the creditors but in the equity financing the shareholders are given the ownership of the shares of the company. The equity shares capital is usually opted for in the initial starting of the company when there are no cash inflows or revenues. The company to entice the investors who have an appetite for risks alongside the entrepreneur who has started the business uses equity financing. In today’s business ground where the debt is costly because the ability to repay debt is highly essential, the companies should maintain a debt to equity ratio of 1:1 or 1:2. The 1:1 ratio of debt to equity means that debt and equity should be of the same amount where as the 1:2 ratio suggests that the same amount to debt should have double amount of equity. Thus, the decision of choosing debt financing or equity financing should be based on the stage of progress of the business. If the business is in the startup stage when the cash inflows and the revenues are scarce, the company should definitely go for generation of fresh equity capital. Where as in the later stages of the company when it has started acquiring cash inflows it should opt for debt financing. There is another problem involved in the starting up position of the company where if the company does not show a strong profit creating potential then it would not attract any strong investors or venture capitalists who

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